Cynergin plays an important role in bringing leading edge technology to market.

Concerns about Global Warming, Security of Supply, Dependence on Oil, Renewable Resources, and the worldwide increase in Demand for Energy, are stimulating discussion and driving up utility prices.

Fortunately, these same considerations are also accelerating Research and Development in improving the efficiency of existing technologies, and developing new ones.

At Cynergin we keep a watching brief on all these developments and are interested in hearing about new ideas, or recycled-but-improved old ones, as delivering efficiency and innovation to our clients is an integral part of our added-value pledge.

Call (+44) 0845 257 7080 (local rate from UK) for an exploratory discussion or email us now with your contact details and the nature of your enquiry and one of our specialists will call you back as soon as possible.

We welcome comments, or contributions, to our List of Proven & Emerging Technologies pages, and if you require more detailed information on any of these topics please let us know via the Contact Us page. We hope you find these pages interesting.

PROVEN AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

1 CLIMATE CHANGE & ECONOMICS - DRIVERS FOR NEW TECHNOLOGY

1.1 Increased focus on Climate Change

Awareness has become heightened as consensus grows in the scientific community, owing to real evidence of the climate-altering effects of greenhouse gas ("GHG") emissions. The phenomenon at the Poles of increased numbers of icebergs and larger ice floes breaking away has been a graphic illustration. More recently, reports of an inland Arctic sea area, flooding in East Africa, Bangladesh, India and in parts of Europe as well as mudslides in Ecuador have brought matters into the news and focused public attention. The Kyoto treaty quotas have caused signatory governments to introduce initiatives such as the Climate Change Levy and Carbon Trading Credits to encourage effort and innovation, using a "stick & carrot" approach.

Unfortunate events such as the disastrous fires in Borneo, Indonesia, have made the situation worse (the forest & peat-bed fires accounted for 20% of total world CO2 emissions in 2005) so even greater efforts must now be made to reduce man-made GHG emissions, and quickly.

1.2 The large increase in the price of oil & gas

This has caused re-evaluation of economic thresholds of conventional energy projects and improved the attractiveness of emerging renewable technologies when measured against fossil fuel energy sources. Greater effort to maintain the oil price is now being made within the OPEC group of countries, and increase of demand from China, India and other emerging economies is forcing up the price for oil and gas. This has meant that new energy technologies are now more competitive, with economic potential for clean solar, wind, and hydro energy, and possibly nuclear energy, displacing fossil fuels in the future.

At Cynergin we believe that everyone, from individual home owners, small or large commercial concerns, communities from local collectives to the biggest countries, can all make contributions to reducing GHG, and enjoy the benefits of both lower costs and greater comfort as a result. We should all make an effort, according to our capabilities, whether it is turning off lights in unoccupied rooms, or supporting local green initiatives like wind farms, or waste recycling and cogeneration.

2 COGENERATION

Cogeneration otherwise known as Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is the generation of electricity, using a motive source such as a gas engine: the process then utilises waste heat, normally lost (in the cooling towers) when electricity is generated in conventional power stations. This heat can be used for building and water heating, and/or refrigeration (e.g. air conditioning), in a single process at the point of use.

CHP is very energy efficient and, as well as supplying a business or community with power, it can deliver a number of positive financial and environmental benefits.
Cynergin's experience in the application of CHP has been a focus since the company was founded and we have installed a variety of units from micro-turbines to large steam generating reciprocating gas engines and turbines. As an independent company we are able to advise on, and source, the most appropriate technology from the best-of-breed manufacturers, delivering output/demand-matched solutions with optimized return on investment.

2.1 The Benefits Of CHP

CHP is a well-established technology, capable of reducing both the carbon footprint of users as well as their utility costs. This technology is mechanically mature and is government supported by qualifying for CCL exemptions and new entrant allowances under the Emissions Trading Scheme. CHP delivers operational, financial and environmental benefits from a single unit of fuel.
 

2.2 Where to apply CHP

Consistent demands for thermal energy, and considerable electrical base loads are most appropriate for cogeneration.

Typical applications would be:

• Hospitals, particularly large acute
• Universities /Government Sites
• District Heating Schemes (i.e. Offices, Residential)
• Military Bases
• Hotels and Leisure Centres
• Industrial / Commercial (Drying, chilling, heating)
• Hot-house agricultural

3 RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy is a dynamic field with both proven and emerging technologies being driven by Global Warming and Security of Supply concerns.
The following are just some of these advances, and we will update this page as new technologies become available.

3.1 Wind Power

Wind farms, both on and off-shore, are a reality and planning permission notwithstanding, will become more and more commonplace. Cynergin has explored a number of ways in which single, large consumers can install their own generation. The experience of wind farms is that the bigger the individual generating sail the better in terms of financial viability; but unless you are only exporting at wholesale prices, smaller units can still make economic and environmental sense.

3.1.1 Are wind turbines noisy?

Wind turbines are not noisy. Virtually everything with moving parts will make some sound, and wind turbines are no exception. It is however possible to stand underneath a turbine and hold an ordinary conversation. As wind speed rises, the noise of the wind masks the low-level sound made by wind turbines.

Well designed wind turbines are generally quiet in operation, and compared to the noise of road traffic, trains, aircraft and construction activities, to name a few, the noise from wind turbines is very low. Why not visit a wind farm and experience it for yourself?

Source/Activity Indicative noise level dB (A)
Threshold of hearing 1
Rural night-time background 20-40
Quiet bedroom 35
Wind farm at 350m 35-45
Car at 40mph at 100m 55
Busy general office 60
Truck at 30mph at 100m 65
Pneumatic drill at 7m 95
Jet aircraft at 250m 105
Threshold of discomfort 140

Information taken from The Scottish Office, Environment Department, Planning Advice Note, PAN 45

3.2 Ocean driven hydro-electric power

3.2.1 Wave Power

Wave power technologies have been around for nearly thirty years.
Setbacks and a general lack of confidence have contributed to slow progress towards proven devices that would have a good probability of becoming commercial sources of electrical power. For example in the UK, arguably one of the world’s best locations for establishing wave power, owing to the strength of the resource, no Government funding was available to support R&D for the ten years from 1989 until 1999. (Source: World Energy Council)

Estimates of the forecast cost per unit of electricity for various wave devices show offshore and near-shore devices producing power in the 5-7 pence/kWh range trending down, with a halving in the predicted cost over a period of six or seven years. This is borne out by the experience of onshore wind energy costs, which have been seen to fall by a factor of five over 12 to 15 years. Based on these results, it is reasonable to expect that wave energy wholesale unit costs can be made to fall to the 2-3 pence/kWh range.

3.2.2 Tidal Power

Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction of the moon and the sun acting upon the oceans of the rotating earth. The relative motions of these bodies cause the surface of the oceans to be raised and lowered periodically, as follows:

• a half day cycle, due to the rotation of the earth within the gravitational field of the moon (twice daily high tides);
• a 14 day cycle, resulting from the gravitational field of the moon combining with that of the sun to give alternating spring (maximum) and neap (minimum) tides. The range of a spring tide is about twice that of a neap tide;
• a half year cycle, due to the inclination of the moon's orbit to that of the earth, giving rise to maximum spring tides in March and September.
In the open ocean, the maximum amplitude of the tides is only about one metre. Tidal amplitudes are increased substantially towards the coast, particularly in estuaries. This is mainly caused by shelving of the sea bed and funnelling of the water by estuaries. These effects combine to give a mean spring tidal range of over 11 m in the Severn Estuary.

The amount of energy obtainable from a tidal energy scheme therefore varies with location and time. Output changes as the tide ebbs and floods each day; it can also vary by a factor of about four over a spring-neap cycle. Tidal energy is, however, highly predictable in both amount and timing.

Extraction of energy from the tides is considered to be practical only at those sites where the energy is concentrated in the form of large tides and the geography provides suitable sites for tidal plant construction. Such sites are not commonplace but a considerable number have been identified in the UK.

Tidal barrages would comprise sluice gates and turbine generators. Large scale structures like the Severn Barrages would also include blank caissons and ship-locks. During the ebb tide water is allowed to flow through the sluices and the turbine draft tubes to ensure the maximum possible passage of water into the impounded basin. In this respect a tidal energy barrage is no different to a low-head hydro-electric dam.

Kaplan turbines have guide vanes and blades that can be moved by hydraulic motors. This allows turbine operation, and therefore energy conversion efficiency, to be optimized. Experience from the UK’s tidal energy programme revealed that ebb generation (i.e. only on the ebb tide) maximises the amount of energy that can be produced from this type of barrage system. Two-way generation (on both the flood and ebb tides) is technically possible, however less energy would be produced. Moreover, Kaplan turbines in a horizontal configuration are optimised for generation with flow in one direction.

3.3 Other hydro-electric

Hydropower currently provides about 19% of the world’s electricity supply.
Hydroelectricity is the most important of the clean, economically feasible, renewable energy options. It is clear, therefore, that hydropower has an important role to play in the future, both in terms of World energy supply and water resources development.

The most important characteristics of hydropower can be summarised as follows:

• it plays a major role in reducing greenhouse gas and particulate emissions;
• proven technology;
• fast response time;
• it has the lowest operating costs and longest plant life, compared with other large-scale generating options;
• The reservoir water may also be used for other functions such as fisheries, discharge regulation downstream for navigation improvements, flood protection, recreation, and wildlife habitats;
• the ‘fuel’ (water) is renewable, and is not subject to fluctuations in market conditions. Hydro can represent energy independence and security of supply.

Hydroelectricity can work efficiently on both very large and at micro scales of production.
From the point of view of economics, it is clear that hydropower requires a substantial initial investment cost, which can be a deterrent to potential developers. However this should always be balanced against the long life and low operating costs of hydro plants, and the fact that there is no consumption of fuel for energy production. Globally, in comparison with other plants, and considering the quality of the energy produced, the balance shows a clear advantage for hydropower, where flowing surface water is readily available.

3.3.1 Water wheels

Water wheels have traditionally been associated with the old flour grinding mills and the like, but can also be used to drive an alternator to generate electricity. Long ago, a mill-pond would store water overnight to be used by the watermill during the day. This form of flow control is obviously impractical today due to the requirement for flood land. However with the development of batteries to store power and inverters to interface Utility companies, the electricity grid can be used as an energy reservoir.

Power generation is determined by flow, a product of head (height of water), volume, and efficiency. In mountainous areas, micro hydropower. using small turbines can be cheap and effective. In low-head and low-flow conditions, these turbines are significantly less satisfactory and the case for a waterwheel-driven generator is more attractive
The main types of water wheels are:

1. Overshot Wheel: This is the classic water wheel we are all familiar with. They require large heads (generally 6 feet or more) in order for the wheel to clear the tailwater, which is necessary for operation. But they are efficient, usually between 60-65%, and very simple to construct and repair. They have two main drawbacks. They are very bulky, and their slow rpm requires a lot of gearing to step up to alternator requirements.

2. Undershot Wheel: Similar looking to the overshot wheel, the water flows under this wheel. It is also simple to construct and repair but also requires gearing before the alternator. It's unique design allows it to work for heads down to one foot, but it's efficiency is a maximum of 25%.

3. Pelton Impulse Wheel: This wheel utilizes a large head and is up to 90% efficient. The water is taken from a high head and accelerated through a pipe to a narrow nozzle. This jet is then projected onto a specially designed wheel. The wheel can be of a compact design, and gearing is not required before the alternator.

4. Francis Turbine: The water is directed to the blades of the runner by guide vanes, which can also be used to regulate flow. This design works efficiently for heads of four feet and up. Efficiencies up to 80% are possible, but turbines usually require steady flow rates or complex electrical compensation and regulation.

 

3.4 Energy from the sun

3.4.1 Solar electric

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are rapidly falling in cost and there are now occasions when a PV panel can be cost effective, even without grants. Commonly seen examples are road signs where a small supply is needed but the cost of getting an electricity supply to the sign can be high in remote locations. Roof and wall mounted systems are now available incorporating PV arrays that can make a significant contribution to the electrical supply requirements of a building, whether domestic or commercial.

3.4.2 Solar thermal

This is an old idea, brought up-to-date. While older systems worked well in warm climates, with lots of hot sunshine, modern systems are more efficient and, while still dependent on sun hours, are hardly effected by ambient temperatures. An abundant area of un-shaded roof or wall space is all that is required, though south, south-east or south-west facing, adds to the economic viability.

Other ideas have been postulated for using the heat stored in the sea (we all know the effect of the Gulf stream on our climate) and on a smaller scale an alternative that may have economic value is the solar pond. By trapping sunlight in a freshwater pond the water will warm up: this energy can be used in a heat pump to cause steam production. The steam is then used: to spin turbines for electricity generation; or for building heating purposes.

3.5 Energy from waste

Energy from waste, as an alternative to fossil fuels, provides an important contribution towards the reduction in landfill disposal and global warming

3.5.1 Landfill gas

Landfill gas is a resource, which can be profitably harnessed. The methane produced by landfill sites is used as a fuel to drive a generator to produce renewable electricity: turning a potential liability into a lucrative resource. It is also good for the environment.

Methane when burned produces CO2 but there is still a benefit to the environment as methane is ~21 times more polluting as a greenhouse gas than CO2 Furthermore, the electricity production can be closer to sites of consumption, reducing transmission losses.

3.5.2 Pyrolysis

Energy is recovered from pre-sorted household and other wastes through a two stage thermal treatment process, comprising gasification and high temperature oxidation. This converts local waste streams into a high rate of thermal energy for process steam, district heating, and/or electricity. This gas will typically have a calorific value of 22 - 30MJ/m3 depending on the waste material being processed.

The drying, pyrolysis and gasification of the pre-treated waste is carried out in the plant’s primary chamber under oxygen-starved conditions. The gas generated in the primary chamber is transferred to a separate secondary chamber where final high-temperature oxidation takes place. Recovered energy is then converted into hot water or steam and the flue-gas is passed through a dry flue-gas cleaning system with injection of lime and active carbon. This process achieves low carbon content in slag (less than 3% TOC), CO stability on a low level and a high degree of cracking of organic substances and also low and stable NOx emissions.

This proven technology provides a low cost, green alternative to landfill and is an additional source of energy and if used to produce electricity qualifies for the UK Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROCs).

3.5.3 Septic tank methane

Properly designed septic systems provide economical and effective sewage treatment for the bacterial detoxification (anaerobic digestion) of human, animal, and other organic waste and waste water. The tank contains very low levels of oxygen and generates methane (as well as some hydrogen sulphide and CO2) as a natural by-product of composting.
This methane can be captured in an accumulator and used as a fuel for heating, lighting, electrical generation, or cogeneration.

3.6 Coal-bed methane

Methane is extremely active as a GHG (~21 times more damaging than CO2) and occurs naturally in bio-matter, being particularly concentrated in coal, especially where coal seams have been mined (coal-gas is comprised chiefly of methane, hydrogen and carbon monoxide). This gas is found in natural underground reservoirs or sealed off mines, under pressure, and is drilled for in much the same way as oil, natural gas, or water.

The thermal qualities of coal-bed methane vary from site to site due to differences in gas chemistry, and to meet commercial requirements is sometimes mixed with natural gas. Royalty payments are often required to owners of the old coal beds.
Nevertheless, life-cycle costs of installations appear competitive and as natural gas diminishes in availability, coal-bed methane may well become a fuel of choice in areas once mined for coal.

3.7 Bio-mass

Municipal solid waste is potentially a vast source of energy (See Section 3.5 – Energy from Waste, above) as are wood by-products (ignoring wood itself, See Section 3.8 – Wood-fired heating & cogeneration, below) and agricultural products grown specifically as fuels.

Projections of future energy scenarios present various possibilities in terms of the magnitude of wood fuel use in the future. The World Energy Outlook 2000, prepared by the International Energy Agency, projects an increase in the consumption of Combustible Renewables and Waste ("CRW"; including fuel wood, charcoal, crop residues and animal wastes) to 1,103 mtoe in 2020. However, the share of CRW in the total primary energy supply in developing countries will drop from about 24% in 1997 to 15% in 2020, owing to a more rapid expansion of commercial energy use as a result of rising income levels. However, in Africa the share would still remain high, at around 43% in 2020, based on a projection of relatively modest increases in income levels within the region.

The growing interest in biomass energy is the result of:
1. rapid changes in the energy market worldwide, driven by privatisation, deregulation;
2. recognition of the future potential contribution of biomass and other renewables;
3. its availability, versatility and sustainability;
4. technological advances (gasification, co-generation, biogas production, ethanol fuels blended with petrol, bio-diesel, etc.).

3.7.1 Ethanol

Ethanol fuel is a growing market (no pun intended) and in some countries (e.g. Brazil) farming of crops genetically modified to be especially high in cellulose (e.g. modified maize), has reduced dependency and costs of imported oil. Inexpensive modifications to petrol engines to accept ethanol only or high ethanol content fuel means a considerable potential for substituting oil. Predictions vary enormously depending on when cellulose can be used to produce ethanol commercially on a world scale. For example, estimates indicate that by 2020 over 30 billion litres could be obtained from cellulose-based material in the USA alone.

The environmental benefits could be enormous, since about 2.3 tonnes of CO2 are saved for each tonne of ethanol fuel.

The market for ethanol is not confined to road transport: it has many other applications, e.g. co-generation, domestic appliances, chemical applications (though not as yet, aviation fuel).

In the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on Emissions Scenarios, it is estimated that the largest renewable energy potentials in the medium term (to 2025) lie in the development of modern biomass (70 to 140 EJ), followed by solar (16 to 22 EJ) and wind energy (7 to 10 EJ). (see www.worldenergy.org)

3.8 Wood-fired heat & cogeneration

Recent trends in both energy and environmental policies, mainly in developed countries, promote the use of wood fuels. This is based on the premise that wood is a renewable resource, with a degree of security of supply, and produces less greenhouse gas than fossil-fuels. Trees however also act as a carbon sink, and emit oxygen, as they grow. Moreover, the direct burning of fuel wood in combustibly poor-quality cooking stoves can result in emitting pollutants such as carbon monoxide, methane, and carcinogenic particulates: methane is ~21 times more damaging as a greenhouse gas than C02.

Wood fuels come from a variety of supply sources, such as forests, non-forest lands and forest industry by-products. On average, 3.2 billion m3 of wood is harvested annually worldwide, more than 50% of which is used for wood fuel (remainder in building, paper products etc.). Most wood fuels are obtained from forests, contributing to deforestation in a major way, however, it is now estimated that considerable amounts of wood fuels come from non-forest areas, such as village lands, agricultural land, agricultural crop plantations (rubber, coconut, etc.), homesteads and trees along roadsides. In some Asian countries, the proportion of wood fuels originating from non-forested areas exceeds 50%. Nevertheless, wood fuel consumption exceeds the sustainable production from available and accessible supply sources and the pressure on forest resources is causing concern.

Canada has the world’s third largest forest area (over 2.4 million square km) which supports a massive forest-based sector: timber, pulp and paper and a host of associated products. These industries generate very large amounts of residues – chiefly bark, sawdust and shavings from the timber industry and black liquor from the paper industry. Wood-based production of electrical or mechanical energy in Canada uses these residues as fuel. If the availability of surplus residues declines in the future there is a possibility of wood fibre being grown specifically for use as fuel. The Canadian Forest Service has supported research on energy plantations for many years to develop fast-growing poplars and willows for the production of forest biomass for energy.

In the UK, efficient combustion, in boilers at high heat and oxygen availability, will reduce emissions and enable a variety of wood fuels to be used for steam generation (for heating, electrical production, and industrial uses). Waste wood from building demolition, and other products such as paper and cardboard can be incinerated in efficient CHP applications (see Section 2 – Cogeneration, above) saving landfill costs and increasing electricity supply.

3.9 Hydrogen as fuel

Hydrogen has been called the perfect fuel. Its major reserve on earth (water) is inexhaustible. The use of hydrogen is compatible with nature, rather than intrusive. We will never run out of hydrogen.

Hydrogen can be obtained from water by the process of electrolysis, or splitting water molecules using electricity. There are two considerations however:
1. The environmental effects of getting the electricity from power plants. Many power plants producing electricity run on carbon-based fuels, such as coal or gas, and therefore produce GHG. However, where our electricity comes from the various water water-powered generators described in section 3.2 or from solar or wind, this is not a problem;

2. Hydrogen is a volatile, potentially explosive gas (though this hazard is often exaggerated by popular myth spawned by the Hindenburg disaster: more damage was caused by burning diesel fuel), and requires special storage. Of course the same can be said of LPG's (propane, butane, natural gas etc.) and various medical gasses. However, the development of hybrid cars etc has funded research into hydrogen storage the latest being "carbon-adsorption" systems. These are refrigerated and pressurized tanks that can store massive amounts of condensed hydrogen. Calculations estimate that over 7 gallons of hydrogen could be stored in a single gram of this new material. This allows a range of nearly 5,000 miles from a single fill-up. These tanks would weigh less than 200 pounds, occupy no more than the amount of space used by current petrol tanks, and could be re-fuelled in 5 minutes.

Although hydrogen can be burned as fuel this is not 100% GHG free (heat from internal combustion engines created nitrous oxides, and their lubricants CO2). It seems likely then that, at the moment, fuel cells constitute the best use of hydrogen.

3.10 Fuel cells

Fuel cells have no moving parts. A fuel cell converts the chemicals hydrogen and oxygen into water, and in the process it produces electricity.
At one time considered the holy grail of energy production, the fuel cell technology is here today, and on the move: The HYCHAIN-MINITRANS Project, launched on 31st January 2006 in Brussels, will allow users in four regions of the European Union to test 150 full size electrically-powered vehicles fuelled by hydrogen fuel cells, including scooters, tricycles, wheelchairs, small utility vehicles and minibuses.

A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device, like a battery. A battery has all of its chemicals stored inside, and it also converts those chemicals into electricity. This means that a battery eventually "goes dead" and you either throw it away or recharge it.
With a fuel cell, chemicals constantly flow into the cell so it never goes dead - as long as there is a flow of chemicals into the cell, the electricity flows out of the cell. Most fuel cells in development today use hydrogen and oxygen as the chemicals.

3.10.1 How it works

Each fuel cell, like a battery, has an anode and a cathode. Pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) enters the fuel cell on the anode side. This gas is forced through a catalyst by the pressure. When an H2 molecule comes in contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and two electrons (e-). The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their way through the external circuit and return to the cathode side of the fuel cell.
Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O2) is being forced through the catalyst, where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge. This negative charge attracts the two H+ ions through the membrane, where they combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons from the external circuit to form a water molecule (H2O).

This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7 volts. To get this voltage up to a reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be combined to form a fuel-cell stack.

The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) operates at fairly low temperatures (about 80 degrees C), which means they warm up quickly and don't require expensive containment structures. Constant improvements in the engineering and materials used in these cells have increased the power density to a level where a device about the size of a small piece of luggage can power a car.

In the foreseeable future fuel cells may power our homes, factories and offices, producing no GHG as a by-product, only water.

4 ENERGY MANAGEMENT

Managing energy is about conservation and demand-side efficiency.
Energy savings can provide real benefits to a business both in terms of its operating costs, and environmentally, in terms of reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Better still, these benefits are easily realised and can often be financially guaranteed.
There are also the unquantifiable benefits of comfort and productivity in a controlled and healthy interior climate.

4.1 Monitoring and targeting

Knowledge is power in the management of any business activity, and energy is no exception. M&T is the first step in both supply and demand management and enables informed decision making. This decision making process includes utility contract purchase, invoice validation, budgeting, and tracking energy use.
The technology required is either spreadsheet, for simple estate management, or database when more complex estate information is needed and data is sourced electronically, by sensors and meters tied to a computerised Building Energy Management System. M&T will often identify issues that can lead to very short paybacks, frequently in just a few months.

4.2 Building Energy Management System

A BMS system can be: an extremely sophisticated and complex computerised system for the monitoring, measuring and management of both supply-side and demand-side energy systems, incorporating climate predictive and occupancy trending software, leading to an "intelligent building"; or simply a method of programming zoned temperatures and enabling heating and cooling delivery to maintain output requirements. Whatever the system, exception and fault reporting are essential ingredients, as is consumption measurement.
A BMS however is only as good as its sensors and control algorithms permit.

4.3 Sensing and Controls

Controls have evolved from simple switches to very high levels of sophisticated automation. Electronic technology has transformed our lives and controls are at the cutting edge of making change happen.

Controls can sense: time, temperature, light levels, movement, sound, vibration, air quality etc. The information is then processed to make something happen: it can be to turn the lights on, sound an alarm, or open a door. Originally controls were just about building temperatures (thermostats) but today they control our whole building environment (not just temperature, but humidity, air-chemistry, safety, etc.) and we are often completely unaware of their presence.

4.3.1 Cynergin's experience of BMS & Controls

Honeywell; Trend; Smart Kontrols; are just some of the major BMS controls suppliers that Cynergin have worked with and developed for new site systems. Often premises are already equipped with controls, but continuing evolution, just like computers, means they have a finite economic life, and become obsolete.

In-built intelligence gives modern controls self-fault diagnosis, and they often store information about how they work and how they should be connected. A good controls system relies on educated selection of components. Controls cannot make a poorly designed building energy efficient, however they invariably improve things. A good controls system designer is not an electronics engineer, but rather an engineer who understands how a building works and ascertains how controls can optimise the environment. The benefit of controls is efficiency: lower fuel consumption and costs, and a significant reduction in the carbon footprint. Typical installations can reduce energy use by 15 to 30%.

5 CONSERVATION

End-user conservation can cut energy costs by up to 10%. Working with end users and raising awareness of both usage and cost pays dividends. Creating simple management reporting systems has shown many organisations where savings can be made. Sometimes this requires some small investment in permanent or temporary sub-metering but significant rewards can often be generated with simple monitoring and management awareness.

5.1 Lighting

On average, more than 20% of an organisations electricity bill is spent on lighting.
New modern High Frequency Lighting ("HFL") will improve the quality of artificial lighting (in compliance with latest Health & Safety guidance), save energy and maintenance costs, and reduce summer excess heat.
Existing non high-frequency fluorescent light fittings can be replaced with Low Energy Electronic Ballast and Tri-phosphor tubes. In addition, tungsten (GLS) fittings can be converted to compact fluorescent.
PIR presence detectors can be fitted to rooms infrequently used, and there may also be opportunities for the inclusion of daylight linked dimming controls.
LED lighting is rapidly becoming cost effective and offers extremely low energy use and long lamp life coupled with good colour rendering. LED is proving valuable in signage display lighting.
Cynergin has worked on many lighting retrofit projects and has found that reflector design is a key component in optimising systems and minimising installed watts. As a consequence this is usually evaluated as part any conservation programme.
Interestingly some old ideas are being revisited, one being Light Tubes ("LT"). This is a modern updating of deck prisms which allowed sunlight below-decks on a ship, while preserving waterproof integrity: the prism would scatter the light below, maximising illumination. LT uses natural daylight as the source which can be distributed by reflectors or fibre optics (e.g. to a below-ground tunnel or storage area, minimizing requirements for electric lighting).

5.1.1 Benefits

• Saves energy and carbon emissions
• Reduced maintenance: HFL tubes last about 2 to 3 times longer.
• HFL Reduces the load imposed on the electrical network
• Flicker free, improves lighting quality and colour
• HFL Allows rationalisation of tube sizes
• Reduces summer overheating

5.2 Water

Both water and sewerage costs are climbing. Water costs money to collect, to pump to homes and offices, to clean and return to the environment. All this uses energy, contributing to the production of harmful GHG's. And yet we lose vast quantities of water each and every day through leaky taps and pipes and inefficient systems.

Typical solutions include:
• Automatic metering reading (AMR)
• Electronic urinal and WC controls
• Dams and low volume flushing designs
• Efficient showerheads
• Push taps and electronic taps operated by infrared
• Tap washer replacement
• Rainwater harvester systems
• Grey water recycling
• Meter downsizing solutions
• Mains replacement
• Boreholes

The Government's Enhanced Capital Allowances scheme promotes water conservation measures by providing fast write-offs on approved capital investment.

5.3 Insulation

Insulation is used throughout buildings to control the movement of energy (heat or coolth). Insulation materials are rated by thermal resistance or “k” value.

For us to be comfortable, the environment we live in needs to be around 21oC. To achieve this we heat in winter and, in some buildings, we cool in summer. Insulation can help keep heat in or out, making it easier to achieve comfort levels and thus minimise energy use: in plant areas it keeps energy within pipes and ducts. Most people are aware of the benefits of insulation in houses (first the attic; then the windows, walls, and draft exclusion, the water heating system; finally under floors) in improving comfort levels, and as a side-benefit, reducing noise pollution. Grants are obtainable to improve residential insulation in lofts and cavity walls.

Most insulation materials rely on the insulating qualities of still air. They have a material make up that traps small pockets of air in bubbles (e.g. foam, or pellets) or fibrous mat (e.g. fibreglass, or cellulose). Applying insulation requires care as there can be inherent problems: warm air often contains significant amounts of water vapour and if this is cooled it will condense and precipitate water. This can happen across an insulating material if the water vapour is allowed to penetrate, resulting in soggy, ineffective insulation. Normally this is avoided by the use of a vapour barrier to prevent water vapour entering the insulation.

Traditional insulation materials also acted as water barriers: turf roofs, thatched roofs; wattle and daub walls (twigs and lime mortar), cob walls (straw and clay); all had the benefit of insulating properties, now replaced by more convenient (but less eco-friendly) products.

5.4 End-user Conservation

End-user conservation alone can cut energy costs by 10 to 15%
Actions taken to improve efficiency can vary: some cost nothing, some are low cost and others require greater investment. Technology is often the key, but people also have a part to play.
For example, simple thermostatic radiator valves are a more efficient, reliable, and cost-effective solution to room temperature control, than opening windows in winter. Likewise, turning off lights when leaving unoccupied rooms is simple, but to be effective must be instilled as habitual conservation activity; occupancy sensors will achieve the same thing, but require capital investment.
Good energy management will normally deliver savings through a combination of actions. Improving energy efficiency can bring many benefits:

• Lower energy costs
• Reduced carbon emissions, vital for our planet
• Improved working conditions
• Better control
• Legislative compliance
• Aiding ISO 14001 accreditation
• Demonstrating corporate and social responsibility

It is estimated that each individual is responsible for generating about 3 tonnes of CO2 per annum – is this a popular myth, or about right? How about you? Just for fun, visit our Carbon Calculator and see how you compare.